From: The hyperpycnite problem
Serial number in Fig. 1 | Case study and location | Configuration of density plumes on satellite images | Environment | External control | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1A − Yellow River, Bohai Bay | 1A − Simple lobate, associated with a single river mouth (old river mouth, 1995; Fig. 2e) | River-dominated delta | Tidal shear front (Wang et al. 2010) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
1B − Yellow River, Bohai Bay | 1B − Horse’s tail (Modern river mouth, 1999; Fig. 2f) | River-dominated delta | Tidal shear front (Wang et al. 2010) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. | |
2 | Yangtze River, East China Sea | Deflecting (Fig. 11a) | Tide-dominated estuary | Shelf currents (Liu et al. 2006) Vertical mixing by tides in winter months (Luo et al. 2017) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
3 | Río de la Plata Estuary, Argentina and Uruguay, South Atlantic Ocean | Dissipating (Fig. 20c) | Marine | Ocean currents (Gonzalez-Silvera et al. 2006; Matano et al. 2010) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
4 | Guadalquivir River, Southern Spain, Gulf of Cádiz | U-Turn (Fig. 22c) | River-dominated delta | Surace and slope currents (Peliz et al. 2009) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
5 | Strait of Gibraltar | Swirly (NASA 2017) | Strait mouth | Ocean water moving through the strait and internal waves (Shanmugam 2013) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
6 | Chignik Lake, Alaska, Pacific Ocean | Linear (Fig. 6) | Braided delta in a lagoon, Pacific Ocean | Coarse-grained braided delta (McPherson et al. 1987) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
7 | 7A − Copper River, Gulf of Alaska | 7A − Coalescing irregular, associated with multiple river mouths (Fig. 24a) | Braided delta, marine | Coarse-grained braided delta | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
7B − Copper River, Gulf of Alaska | 7B − Blanketing eolian dust plume (Fig. 24b) | Braided delta, marine | Eolian | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. | |
8 | Hugli River (a distributary of the Ganges River), India, Bay of Bengal | Anastomosing (Fig. 25b) | Tide-dominated estuary (Balasubramanian and Ajmal Khan 2002) | Tidal currents The Bay of Bengal is known not only for severe monsoonal floods, but also for frequent cyclonic activity (Shanmugam 2008a) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
9 | Zambezi River, Central Mozambique, Indian Ocean | Coalescing lobate, associated with multiple river mouths (Fig. 23) | Wave-dominated delta | Longshore currents (Mikhailov et al. 2015) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
10 | Off Namibia, South Atlantic | Cloudy (NASA 2017) | Marine | Upwelling (Plankton) (Shillington et al. 1992) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
11 | Off Namibia, South Atlantic | Swirly (NASA 2017) | Marine | Upwelling (Hydrogen sulfide) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
12 | Gulf of Mannar, India and Sri Lanka, Indian Ocean | Massive and swirly (NASA 2017) | Marine | Monsoonal currents (Jagadeesan et al. 2013); wave actions (Sridhar et al. 2008) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
13 | Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco Bay, Pacific Ocean | Tidal lobate (Fig. 26c) | Bay mouth | Tidal currents (Barnard et al. 2006) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
14 | U.S. Atlantic shelf | Cascading (Shanmugam 2008a) | Shelf (Marine) | 1999 Hurricane Floyda | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
15 | Northern Gulf of Mexico | Swirly (Fig. 27b) | Shelf (Marine) | 2009 Tropical Storm Idaa | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
16 | Kalutara Beach, Sri Lanka, Arabian Sea | Bakwash (Shanmugam 2006b) | Marine | 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunamia | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
17 | Greenland, Labrador Sea | Meltwater (NASA 2017) | Marine | Sublacial, meltwater (Chu 2014; see also Cuffey and Paterson 2010) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
18 | The Great Bahama Bank, Atlantic Ocean | Whitings (NASA 2017) | Marine | Fish activities (Broecker et al. 2000); wind (Dierssen et al. 2009); florida current (Purkis et al. 2017) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
19 | Tagula Island, South Pacific Ocean | Ring (NASA 2017) | Marine | Coral reef (Khanna and Yadav 2008) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
20 | Egypt, Red Sea | Dust (NASA 2017) | Marine | Eolian | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
21 | Yucatan Peninsula, Southern Gulf of Mexico | Feathery (NASA 2017) | Marine | Complex mix of sediment and plankton | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
22 | Paluweh Volcano, Indonesia, Indian Ocean | Volcanic ash (NASA 2017) | Marine | Volcanic | Interpretation of volcanic ash plume is possible. |
23 | Bogoslof Island, Bering Sea | Volcanic ash (NASA 2017) | Marine | Volcanic (Shipley and Sarna-Wojcicki 1982) | Interpretation of volcanic ash plume is possible. |
24 | Lake Michigan, USA | Tendril (Fig. 28b) | Lacustrine | Eolian | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
25 | Lake Erie, USA | Swirly (Fig. 28c) | Lacustrine | Seiche (de Jong and Battjes 2004) | Interpretation of a specific type of plume in the ancient record is impractical at present. |
26 | Carolina Continental Rise, North Atlantic | Gas hydrate (Paull et al. 1995; see also Ruppel and Kessler 2017) | Marine | Pockmarked sea floor associated with active chemosynthetic biological communities | Interpretation of gas hydrate plume is possible. |